Read this article published on June 20, 2012 on the Cercle Psy website.

In France, they have long been decried. But over the past few years, psychological tests have become the subject of a real resurgence. Where does this trend come from? How is a test constructed, and what does it offer? How much does it cost, and who can use it? A survey of test designers and sellers.

The year is 1970. The use of psychological tests was particularly decried: professionals and individuals alike accused them of conveying an ideology of classification, differentiation and repression. Their interpretation was seen as too mechanical, as if they had absolute rather than relative value. Lastly, they are seen as excessively hierarchical in the relationship between expert and patient, tester and test subject.

An unprecedented range of tests

Today, psychological tests have gained in popularity. We’re rediscovering the importance of assessment tools, » says Bernard Langelier, director of Eurotests Editions. They provide the expert with elements that enable him or her to give a pertinent opinion on a person, which that person can then use to build his or her own story « . If the way in which these tests are used has changed considerably, it’s not least because, some thirty years ago, skills assessments were introduced in France. However, the use of these tools continues to be criticized. In the field of human resources, for example, feedback is often affirmative, whereas it should be relative.  » I find this use reprehensible, » confides Bernard Langelier.

Today, psychologists can choose from a wide range of tests, and must distinguish between their advantages and disadvantages, their possibilities and limitations. «  This choice of tool and publisher is something new , » explains Bernard Langelier. Efficiency tests enable a diagnosis to be made (general intelligence tests, for example), while projective tests (Rorschach, TAT) provide an insight into an individual’s personality. These two types of test, with their distinct aims, are not subject to the same statistical elaboration, nor do they benefit from the same rigorous construction.

How do you build a test?

The development of a test represents a considerable investment of time.  » It took me almost six years to adapt the NEMI-2 (an intelligence test for children)!  » confides Georges Cognet, clinical psychologist, teacher at the Ecole des psychologues praticiens and expert with ECPA (Editions du center de psychologie appliquée). What are the different stages in the development of an ECPA psychological test? First, the researchers select the theoretical model that seems most appropriate. Items (situations and questions) are then created, half of which are rejected. These items are then submitted to a group of 300 subjects. Following this, the retained items are ranked from easiest to most difficult. Once the test has been constructed, a team of psychologists tests it on almost 1,200 subjects. The experts then collate all the answers given and determine the scoring criteria. Finally, statisticians draw up norms and tables.

How much does a tool like this cost?

In addition to the investment of time, the financial investment is also considerable. «  It costs around 150,000 euros to construct an efficiency test such as the NEMI-2, and even more for a Wechsler test. For projective tests, it’s a little less expensive. « says Georges Cognet. The lion’s share of the budget is reserved for the intervention of specialist teams. As Isabelle Gillet, Director of Éditions Hogrefe France, points out, « publishers can find it difficult to recoup this investment. It takes us years to break even. Some tests are not profitable, either because they have too few sales, or because they were too expensive to develop, or because they are often copied. « . What about the selling price? Bernard Langelier explains:  » For our part, we take care to offer a fair price. A price that’s too high can lead to piracy, or to an increase in the firm’s rates. « . Eurotests Editions offers individual test materials from 2.5 to 10 euros. However, prices can go up to 30 euros. In addition, whatever the publisher, psychological tests including a case of referenced objects cost in excess of 1,000 euros: 1,448 euros for the WAIS, the benchmark intelligence test for adults, and 1,310 euros for the WISC, the equivalent for children (published by ECPA).

What makes a good test?

 » Although psychology is not a ‘hard’ science, it is nonetheless a science , » says Isabelle Gillet. Psychological tests are judged on their validity, reliability and sensitivity.

Validity must be above all theoretical, i.e. each test must be in line with recent theories on the subject. To ensure that a test is valid, the experts subject it to a population they have already subjected to another, proven test. They then check the correlation of the results: .80 is what they observe most often, meaning that out of 100 people who take tests A and then B, the ranking will be identical from one test to the other for 80 of them.

One of the criteria for assessing a test is also its test-retest fidelity (its stability over time), which means that if a person takes the test again two years later, the two results will be close. But beware: results can also naturally evolve without the test’s fidelity being called into question, » notes Georges Cognet. One study, for example, highlighted the fact that some children had gained around twenty IQ points after being adopted at the age of 5 or 6 « .

Finally, a psychological test must be sensitive, i.e. capable of discriminating between individuals. We follow current standards, » says Isabelle Gillet, both nationally and internationally (with the International Test Commission, for example). And our manuals always include a « development » chapter, which provides all the validity and reliability data we need. « .

Is the use of psychological tests reserved for psychologists?

While some tests may be accessible to human resources and healthcare professionals, such as speech therapists, psychomotor therapists or occupational therapists,  » other tests are reserved for psychologists, as the interpretation of the data they include requires solid training « , explains Isabelle Gillet. Georges Cognet adds:  » Publishers systematically ask for a psychologist’s diploma before issuing intelligence, personality or cognitive function tests . However, the Syndicat National des Psychologues points out that there is no legislative text stating that only a psychologist is entitled to administer a psychological test. This restriction on use would therefore be at the discretion of the publisher and/or the professional.

Example of the Three Tree Test: an innovation on the traditional tree test

More and more psychological tests are appearing today, with a view to understanding the individual in all its complexity. Among them, Benoît Fromage, professor of psychology at the University of Angers, proposes a new one that took him 7 years to develop: the Three Trees Test (1). The aim is to have people draw trees, as in the traditional tree test, but this time, instead of submitting them to the expert’s interpretation, it’s the person themselves who brings them to life with their own stories. According to the author, when an individual draws a tree, it’s as if he’s drawing himself, and when he associates a story with it, it’s as if he’s telling his own life story, by identification. While the principle may at first appear dubious, it is no less innovative.  » I started with the tree test, but very quickly realized that we were still working within an interpretative framework, and that the person himself had no way of expressing himself through speech, » explains Benoît Fromage. For example, the experimenter asks the subject:  » How does this tree make you feel? In concrete terms, what does this tree really need? « (extract from the Phase 1 user manual, steps 5b, 5c and 5d). Here, the person formulates his or her own needs via the tree. Beyond the natural identification with the tree drawn, the specificity of this tool also rests on the principle of polarization, of attraction-repulsion, when the person draws a dream tree and a nightmare tree (Phase 2, steps 9 and 10): the drawing of these two trees would, according to the author, allow access to deep, unconscious data. In a phenomenological approach, the subject expresses himself in the first person, as if in a role-playing game.  » People find it magical, » says the author. It’s important to note that this test is not just for psychologists, as the aim is not to interpret the subject’s words, but to enable him or her to construct a new point of view on himself or herself and his or her problems.  » So there’s no risk of the test going off track, because we remain on an analogical plane, in terms of both the execution, analysis and uses of the test, » explains Benoît Fromage. Training courses for this tool will be organized in the near future, including initiation, in-depth training and supervision.

(1) L’Epreuve des Trois Arbres will be published in full by Eurotests Editions in early summer 2012.

The WAIS-IV (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), freshly reissued for the fourth time, quantifies an individual’s intelligence, but also provides a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of his or her intellectual functioning. The test evaluates four main indices: verbal (the subject’s comprehension and expression), perceptual (his or her ability to discriminate and analyze visual material), memory and mental manipulation of information, and processing speed. This test is undoubtedly the starting point for a complete psychological assessment.

The WISC-IV (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) is the equivalent for children over the age of six, while the WPPSI-III (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) is for younger children, aged 3 to 6. So there’s a test for every age group.

Finally, the MMPI-II (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is used to assess personality disorders such as depression, psychopathic personality, hypomania and so on. In this test, the individual must answer true or false to over 500 questions (e.g., « I often feel very tired » or « I have nightmares almost every night »).

To find out more…

Benoît Fromage (2011). The three-tree test: situation assessment, support and personal development. Editions In Press

Lydia Fernandez (2008). The tree test: a drawing to understand and interpret.^2nd edition. Editions In Press